diff --git a/browse/js/events.js b/browse/js/events.js
index 90bf600..ee52c78 100644
--- a/browse/js/events.js
+++ b/browse/js/events.js
@@ -792,6 +792,13 @@
     function openPartyPicker(opts) {
         return new Promise(function (resolve) {
             var kindWord = opts.kind === 'folder' ? 'folder' : 'file';
+            // The "+ New party" affordance is gated on create authority over ssr/
+            // (pre-checked in createInAggregator). When denied, disable it and say
+            // who can — role-first text inline, the specific people in the tooltip.
+            var newPartyAllowed = opts.canNewParty !== false;
+            var newPartyNote = newPartyAllowed ? '(registers a new party)'
+                : (opts.newPartyHint && opts.newPartyHint.text) || 'You can’t register a new party here.';
+            var newPartyTitle = (!newPartyAllowed && opts.newPartyHint && opts.newPartyHint.title) || '';
             var overlay = document.createElement('div');
             overlay.style.cssText = 'position:fixed;inset:0;background:rgba(0,0,0,0.4);display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;z-index:9000;';
             var box = document.createElement('div');
@@ -810,10 +817,10 @@
                     'Pick the party this ' + kindWord + ' belongs to — it lands under <code>' + escapeHtml(opts.slot) + '/&lt;party&gt;/</code>.' +
                 '</p>' +
                 '<div style="max-height:14rem;overflow-y:auto;border:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.1);padding:0.3rem 0.6rem;margin-bottom:0.5rem;">' +
-                    (partyList || '<em style="color:#888;">No parties yet — create one below.</em>') +
-                    '<label style="display:flex;align-items:center;gap:0.5rem;padding:0.25rem 0;cursor:pointer;border-top:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.05);margin-top:0.3rem;padding-top:0.5rem;">' +
-                        '<input type="radio" name="pp-party" value="__new__">' +
-                        '<span><strong>+ New party…</strong> <span style="color:#888;font-size:0.8rem;">(document controller only)</span></span></label>' +
+                    (partyList || '<em style="color:#888;">No parties yet.</em>') +
+                    '<label title="' + escapeHtml(newPartyTitle) + '" style="display:flex;align-items:center;gap:0.5rem;padding:0.25rem 0;border-top:1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.05);margin-top:0.3rem;padding-top:0.5rem;' + (newPartyAllowed ? 'cursor:pointer;' : 'opacity:0.6;') + '">' +
+                        '<input type="radio" name="pp-party" value="__new__"' + (newPartyAllowed ? '' : ' disabled') + '>' +
+                        '<span><strong>+ New party…</strong> <span style="color:#888;font-size:0.8rem;">' + escapeHtml(newPartyNote) + '</span></span></label>' +
                 '</div>' +
                 '<div id="pp-newparty-row" style="display:none;margin-bottom:0.5rem;font-size:0.9rem;">' +
                     '<label for="pp-newparty">New party name</label><br>' +
@@ -870,8 +877,28 @@
     async function createInAggregator(agg, kind) {
         var up = window.app.modules.upload;
         if (!up) return;
+        var cap = window.zddc && window.zddc.cap;
+        var ssrPath = '/' + agg.project + '/ssr/';
+        var slotPath = '/' + agg.project + '/' + agg.slot + '/';
+        // Pre-check create authority BEFORE any data entry: registering a new
+        // party needs `c` on ssr/, creating under an existing party needs `c` on
+        // the slot. If the user can do neither, don't open the form just to deny
+        // them — say (subtly) who can. If they can only use existing parties,
+        // open the picker with the "+ New party" option disabled + explained.
+        var canNewParty = true, ssrView = null, slotView = null;
+        if (cap && cap.at) {
+            slotView = await cap.at(slotPath);
+            ssrView = await cap.at(ssrPath);
+            var canSlot = !slotView || cap.has({ verbs: slotView.path_verbs }, 'c');
+            canNewParty = !ssrView || cap.has({ verbs: ssrView.path_verbs }, 'c');
+            if (slotView && !canSlot && !canNewParty) {
+                statusError(cap.denyHint(slotView, 'c').text);
+                return;
+            }
+        }
         var parties = await fetchParties(agg.project);
-        var choice = await openPartyPicker({ project: agg.project, slot: agg.slot, kind: kind, parties: parties });
+        var newPartyHint = (!canNewParty && ssrView && cap.denyHint) ? cap.denyHint(ssrView, 'c') : null;
+        var choice = await openPartyPicker({ project: agg.project, slot: agg.slot, kind: kind, parties: parties, canNewParty: canNewParty, newPartyHint: newPartyHint });
         if (!choice) return;
         // Party names are validated to a URL-safe charset, so no encoding
         // needed for the party segment; makeDir/makeFile encode the leaf.
@@ -894,7 +921,10 @@
         } catch (e) {
             var msg = (e && e.message) || String(e);
             if (/\b403\b/.test(msg)) {
-                statusError('Not allowed — registering a new party requires the document-controller role.');
+                // Name who can — best-effort, for the path the denial came from.
+                var denied = choice.isNew ? ssrPath : ('/' + agg.project + '/' + agg.slot + '/' + choice.party + '/');
+                var v = (cap && cap.at) ? await cap.at(denied) : null;
+                statusError(v && cap.denyHint ? cap.denyHint(v, 'c').text : 'Not allowed — you don’t have create access here.');
             } else if (/\b409\b/.test(msg)) {
                 statusError('Unknown party — register it first (document controller).');
             } else {
diff --git a/landing/css/landing.css b/landing/css/landing.css
index f4f6a98..fecd5eb 100644
--- a/landing/css/landing.css
+++ b/landing/css/landing.css
@@ -472,6 +472,21 @@ body {
     text-decoration: underline;
 }
 
+/* Subtle standalone-tools footer. */
+.landing-apps {
+    display: flex;
+    flex-wrap: wrap;
+    align-items: center;
+    gap: 0.75rem;
+    margin: 2rem auto 1rem;
+    padding: 0 1rem;
+    max-width: 60rem;
+    font-size: 0.82rem;
+    color: var(--text-muted, #6b7280);
+}
+.landing-apps__label { color: var(--text-muted, #6b7280); }
+.landing-apps .browse-link { margin-top: 0; }
+
 #projectView ol {
     padding-left: 1.5rem;
 }
diff --git a/landing/template.html b/landing/template.html
index 25f3c48..b78cec1 100644
--- a/landing/template.html
+++ b/landing/template.html
@@ -195,6 +195,15 @@
       </div><!-- /projectView -->
     </main>
 
+    <!-- Subtle links to the standalone tools (run against your own local files,
+         no server). Served at /_apps/<tool>.html by zddc-server. -->
+    <footer class="landing-apps">
+      <span class="landing-apps__label">Standalone tools for your own files:</span>
+      <a class="browse-link" href="/_apps/browse.html">Browse</a>
+      <a class="browse-link" href="/_apps/archive.html">Archive</a>
+      <a class="browse-link" href="/_apps/classifier.html">Classifier</a>
+    </footer>
+
     <!-- Help Panel -->
     <aside id="help-panel" class="help-panel" hidden aria-labelledby="help-panel-title">
         <div class="help-panel__header">
diff --git a/playwright.config.js b/playwright.config.js
index 4fe492e..f2bfe58 100644
--- a/playwright.config.js
+++ b/playwright.config.js
@@ -95,6 +95,10 @@ export default defineConfig({
       name: 'tables',
       testMatch: 'tables.spec.js',
     },
+    {
+      name: 'cap',
+      testMatch: 'cap.spec.js',
+    },
     {
       name: 'tables-mdl',
       testMatch: 'tables-mdl.spec.js',
diff --git a/shared/cap.js b/shared/cap.js
index 0d53d2f..9de000e 100644
--- a/shared/cap.js
+++ b/shared/cap.js
@@ -98,6 +98,48 @@
         a: 'edit access rules'
     };
 
+    // ── "who can?" — tell a denied user who to ask, subtly ──────────────────
+    // The PATTERN: gate an affordance on cap.has(node, verb) / a path view's
+    // path_verbs; when the verb is ABSENT, don't just disable — render
+    // cap.denyHint(view, verb) as the disabled control's tooltip/subtitle (or
+    // a small inline note) so the user learns who can do it instead of acting
+    // and bouncing off a 403. handleForbidden() does the same on a denial that
+    // slips past a pre-check.
+
+    function humanizeRole(name) { return String(name || '').replace(/[_-]+/g, ' ').trim(); }
+
+    // whoCan(view, verb) → the Authority {roles, people} the server computed for
+    // a verb the caller lacks at view's path, or null. `view` is a /.profile/
+    // access?path= result (from cap.at) OR a 403 body carrying who_can.
+    function whoCan(view, verb) {
+        if (!view) return null;
+        var map = view.path_who_can;
+        if (map && map[verb]) return map[verb];
+        if (view.who_can && view.missing_verb === verb) return view.who_can;
+        return null;
+    }
+
+    // denyHint(view, verb) → { text, title } for a subtle "who can" line.
+    // Role-first: "Only the document controller can create here", with the
+    // specific people (admins / role members) as the tooltip detail. Falls back
+    // to naming people, then to "Ask an administrator". Returns null when the
+    // verb is actually granted (nothing to hint) and a generic hint when no
+    // authority is known.
+    function denyHint(view, verb) {
+        var a = whoCan(view, verb);
+        var doing = VERB_LABELS[verb] || verb || 'do that';
+        if (!a || (!(a.roles && a.roles.length) && !(a.people && a.people.length))) {
+            return { text: 'Ask an administrator to ' + doing + ' here.', title: '' };
+        }
+        var people = (a.people || []).slice();
+        var detail = people.length ? people.join(', ') : '';
+        if (a.roles && a.roles.length) {
+            return { text: 'Only the ' + humanizeRole(a.roles[0]) + ' can ' + doing + ' here.', title: detail };
+        }
+        var shown = people.slice(0, 2).join(', ') + (people.length > 2 ? ', …' : '');
+        return { text: 'Ask ' + shown + ' to ' + doing + ' here.', title: detail };
+    }
+
     // handleForbidden(resp, opts) — render a 403 toast naming the
     // missing verb. opts.path (optional) is the URL the failed request
     // hit; when provided, the helper consults /.profile/access?path= to
@@ -111,8 +153,9 @@
     async function handleForbidden(resp, opts) {
         opts = opts || {};
         var missing = '';
+        var body = null;
         try {
-            var body = await resp.clone().json();
+            body = await resp.clone().json();
             if (body && typeof body.missing_verb === 'string') {
                 missing = body.missing_verb;
             }
@@ -127,6 +170,16 @@
             msg = prefix + 'Forbidden.';
         }
 
+        // Append the subtle "who can" hint: prefer who_can from the 403 body,
+        // else fall back to the path-scoped access view. So even a denial the
+        // UI didn't pre-check still tells the user who to ask.
+        if (missing) {
+            var src = (body && body.who_can) ? { who_can: body.who_can, missing_verb: missing } : null;
+            if (!src && opts.path) src = await at(opts.path);
+            var hint = src ? denyHint(src, missing) : null;
+            if (hint && hint.text) msg += ' ' + hint.text;
+        }
+
         // Optional elevate offer: only when the caller supplied a
         // path AND the path-scoped access view reports an elevation
         // grant covering the missing verb. Render as a clickable
@@ -159,5 +212,5 @@
         }
     }
 
-    window.zddc.cap = { at: at, has: has, handleForbidden: handleForbidden };
+    window.zddc.cap = { at: at, has: has, handleForbidden: handleForbidden, whoCan: whoCan, denyHint: denyHint };
 })();
diff --git a/tables/js/main.js b/tables/js/main.js
index ee7ba37..fba7089 100644
--- a/tables/js/main.js
+++ b/tables/js/main.js
@@ -152,7 +152,9 @@
                         if (verbs.indexOf('c') === -1) {
                             addRowBtn.classList.add('is-disabled');
                             addRowBtn.setAttribute('aria-disabled', 'true');
-                            addRowBtn.title = "You don't have create access in this folder.";
+                            // Tell them who can (subtly): role-first text + people in the tooltip.
+                            var hint = window.zddc.cap.denyHint ? window.zddc.cap.denyHint(view, 'c') : null;
+                            addRowBtn.title = hint ? (hint.text + (hint.title ? ' (' + hint.title + ')' : '')) : "You don't have create access in this folder.";
                             // Swallow clicks so the no-op feedback is the
                             // tooltip, not a 403 toast on submission.
                             addRowBtn.addEventListener('click', function (ev) {
diff --git a/tests/cap.spec.js b/tests/cap.spec.js
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef0cd9a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/cap.spec.js
@@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
+import { test, expect } from '@playwright/test';
+import * as path from 'path';
+
+// shared/cap.js — the "who can?" helpers (denyHint / whoCan) + handleForbidden
+// enrichment. cap.js is bundled into every server-mode tool; tables.html is a
+// convenient host. Pure helpers run fine on a file:// page (cap.at short-circuits
+// offline, but denyHint/whoCan/handleForbidden don't need the network).
+
+const HOST = 'file://' + path.resolve('tables/dist/tables.html');
+
+async function load(page) {
+    await page.goto(HOST, { waitUntil: 'load' });
+    await page.waitForFunction(() => window.zddc && window.zddc.cap && window.zddc.cap.denyHint);
+}
+
+test.describe('cap.js — who-can hints', () => {
+    test('denyHint is role-first with people as the tooltip detail', async ({ page }) => {
+        await load(page);
+        const h = await page.evaluate(() => {
+            const view = { path_who_can: { c: { roles: ['document_controller'], people: ['alice@example.com', 'bob@example.com'] } } };
+            return window.zddc.cap.denyHint(view, 'c');
+        });
+        expect(h.text).toBe('Only the document controller can create here.');  // role-first, humanized
+        expect(h.title).toBe('alice@example.com, bob@example.com');             // people in the tooltip
+    });
+
+    test('denyHint names people when no role grants the verb', async ({ page }) => {
+        await load(page);
+        const h = await page.evaluate(() =>
+            window.zddc.cap.denyHint({ path_who_can: { w: { people: ['sam@example.com'] } } }, 'w'));
+        expect(h.text).toBe('Ask sam@example.com to write here.');
+    });
+
+    test('denyHint falls back to "an administrator" when nobody is named', async ({ page }) => {
+        await load(page);
+        const h = await page.evaluate(() => window.zddc.cap.denyHint({ path_who_can: {} }, 'd'));
+        expect(h.text).toBe('Ask an administrator to delete here.');
+    });
+
+    test('whoCan reads either a path view or a 403 body', async ({ page }) => {
+        await load(page);
+        const r = await page.evaluate(() => {
+            const fromView = window.zddc.cap.whoCan({ path_who_can: { c: { roles: ['r1'] } } }, 'c');
+            const fromBody = window.zddc.cap.whoCan({ missing_verb: 'c', who_can: { roles: ['r2'] } }, 'c');
+            const miss = window.zddc.cap.whoCan({ path_who_can: { w: {} } }, 'c');
+            return { fromView: fromView && fromView.roles[0], fromBody: fromBody && fromBody.roles[0], miss };
+        });
+        expect(r.fromView).toBe('r1');
+        expect(r.fromBody).toBe('r2');
+        expect(r.miss).toBeNull();
+    });
+
+    test('handleForbidden appends the who-can hint from the 403 body', async ({ page }) => {
+        await load(page);
+        const msg = await page.evaluate(async () => {
+            let captured = '';
+            window.zddc.toast = (m) => { captured = m; return document.createElement('div'); };
+            const body = JSON.stringify({ error: 'Forbidden', missing_verb: 'c', who_can: { roles: ['document_controller'], people: ['alice@example.com'] } });
+            const resp = new Response(body, { status: 403, headers: { 'Content-Type': 'application/json' } });
+            await window.zddc.cap.handleForbidden(resp, { context: 'Create' });
+            return captured;
+        });
+        expect(msg).toContain('You do not have create access here.');
+        expect(msg).toContain('Only the document controller can create here.');  // who-can appended
+    });
+});
diff --git a/zddc/internal/handler/errors.go b/zddc/internal/handler/errors.go
index 656d8ac..9cad886 100644
--- a/zddc/internal/handler/errors.go
+++ b/zddc/internal/handler/errors.go
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 	"net/http"
 
 	"codeberg.org/VARASYS/ZDDC/zddc/internal/policy"
+	"codeberg.org/VARASYS/ZDDC/zddc/internal/zddc"
 )
 
 // writeForbidden emits a 403 JSON response naming the missing verb. Used
@@ -34,6 +35,25 @@ func writeForbidden(w http.ResponseWriter, action string) {
 	_, _ = w.Write(body)
 }
 
+// writeForbiddenWho is writeForbidden enriched with a "who_can" Authority for
+// the missing verb, computed from the deny site's policy chain. Lets the toast
+// tell the user who to ask even when the action wasn't pre-checked (a race, or
+// a path the client didn't gate). The pre-check path (AccessView.PathWhoCan) is
+// the primary surface; this is the safety net.
+func writeForbiddenWho(w http.ResponseWriter, action string, chain zddc.PolicyChain) {
+	verb := verbForAction(action)
+	body := map[string]any{"error": "Forbidden", "missing_verb": verb}
+	if vs, ok := zddc.ParseVerbSet(verb); ok {
+		if a := zddc.WhoCan(chain, vs); !a.Empty() {
+			body["who_can"] = a
+		}
+	}
+	raw, _ := json.Marshal(body)
+	w.Header().Set("Content-Type", "application/json; charset=utf-8")
+	w.WriteHeader(http.StatusForbidden)
+	_, _ = w.Write(raw)
+}
+
 // verbForAction maps a policy.Action constant to its single-character
 // verb. Mirrors policy.actionVerb but emits the wire-format letter
 // rather than the bitmask, so the JSON body carries "r"/"w"/"c"/"d"/"a"
diff --git a/zddc/internal/handler/fileapi.go b/zddc/internal/handler/fileapi.go
index 41a3a87..c210e23 100644
--- a/zddc/internal/handler/fileapi.go
+++ b/zddc/internal/handler/fileapi.go
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ func authorizeAction(cfg config.Config, w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request,
 	decider := DeciderFromContext(r)
 	allowed, _ := policy.AllowActionFromChainP(r.Context(), decider, chain, p, urlPath, action)
 	if !allowed {
-		writeForbidden(w, action)
+		writeForbiddenWho(w, action, chain)   // name who CAN, so the toast can explain
 		return false
 	}
 	return true
diff --git a/zddc/internal/handler/profilehandler.go b/zddc/internal/handler/profilehandler.go
index 9f5c5c5..61ee1b6 100644
--- a/zddc/internal/handler/profilehandler.go
+++ b/zddc/internal/handler/profilehandler.go
@@ -181,6 +181,15 @@ type AccessView struct {
 	// the "which roles do I hold here?" answer the browse hovercard
 	// surfaces. Elevation-independent (role membership, not admin).
 	PathRoles []string `json:"path_roles,omitempty"`
+	// PathWhoCan answers "if I can't, who can?" for the gated verbs the caller
+	// LACKS at this path (keyed by verb letter: "c"/"w"/"d"). Each entry names
+	// the roles + people that hold the verb, so a denied affordance can show a
+	// subtle "ask a document controller" hint instead of letting the user act
+	// and bounce off a 403. Populated only when the caller can READ the path
+	// (mirrors .zddc readability — no new disclosure), and only for verbs not
+	// already in PathVerbs. Omitted (nil) when the caller can do everything or
+	// can't read here.
+	PathWhoCan map[string]zddc.Authority `json:"path_who_can,omitempty"`
 }
 
 // enumerateAccess builds an AccessView for the given caller. Used by the
@@ -256,6 +265,27 @@ func populatePathScopedAccess(ctx context.Context, decider policy.Decider, cfg c
 	verbs := policy.EffectiveVerbsFromChainP(ctx, decider, chain, p, pathQuery)
 	view.PathVerbs = verbs.String()
 	view.PathIsAdmin = p.Elevated && p.Email != "" && zddc.IsAdminForChain(chain, p.Email)
+	// "If I can't, who can?" — only for verbs the caller LACKS, and only when
+	// they can read here (the .zddc that backs this is read-ACL-governed, so a
+	// reader could see it anyway). Lets a denied affordance explain itself
+	// up-front instead of letting the user act and bounce off a 403.
+	if verbs.Has(zddc.VerbR) {
+		who := map[string]zddc.Authority{}
+		for _, gv := range []struct {
+			letter string
+			v      zddc.VerbSet
+		}{{"c", zddc.VerbC}, {"w", zddc.VerbW}, {"d", zddc.VerbD}} {
+			if verbs.Has(gv.v) {
+				continue
+			}
+			if a := zddc.WhoCan(chain, gv.v); !a.Empty() {
+				who[gv.letter] = a
+			}
+		}
+		if len(who) > 0 {
+			view.PathWhoCan = who
+		}
+	}
 	// Which cascade roles the caller holds at this path — the answer to
 	// "the system thinks I'm a document_controller here, right?".
 	view.PathRoles = zddc.RolesForPrincipalInChain(chain, p.Email)
diff --git a/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan.go b/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e365b66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan.go
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+package zddc
+
+import "sort"
+
+// Authority answers "who can do this here?" for a user who was denied an action.
+// It is split so the UI can lead with the ROLE ("ask a document controller") and
+// keep the specific People (admins + role members + direct email grants) as
+// secondary detail. Both lists are sorted + de-duplicated.
+//
+// Safe to surface to anyone who can read the path: the .zddc cascade it is
+// derived from is already governed by directory read-ACL, so this exposes
+// nothing a reader couldn't already see in the .zddc itself.
+type Authority struct {
+	Roles  []string `json:"roles,omitempty"`
+	People []string `json:"people,omitempty"`
+}
+
+// Empty reports whether no authority was found (no one is named — the caller
+// should fall back to "ask an administrator").
+func (a Authority) Empty() bool { return len(a.Roles) == 0 && len(a.People) == 0 }
+
+// WhoCan returns the principals that hold `verb` at the chain: every
+// acl.permissions grantee across the cascade whose verb set includes it, plus
+// every level's admins (who bypass the ACL entirely). Role grantees are recorded
+// as Roles AND expanded to their member patterns in People; direct email/glob
+// grantees go to People. Pure and side-effect-free.
+func WhoCan(chain PolicyChain, verb VerbSet) Authority {
+	roleSet := map[string]struct{}{}
+	peopleSet := map[string]struct{}{}
+
+	add := func(principal string, levelIdx int) {
+		if principal == "" {
+			return
+		}
+		if IsPrincipalRole(principal) {
+			// A bare name is a role only if the cascade actually defines it;
+			// otherwise it's a wildcard pattern (e.g. "*") handled as a person.
+			if _, defined := lookupRoleMembers(chain, levelIdx, principal); defined {
+				roleSet[principal] = struct{}{}
+				for _, m := range RoleMembers(chain, levelIdx, principal) {
+					if m != "" {
+						peopleSet[m] = struct{}{}
+					}
+				}
+				return
+			}
+		}
+		peopleSet[principal] = struct{}{}
+	}
+
+	for i, level := range chain.Levels {
+		for principal, verbStr := range level.ACL.Permissions {
+			if v, _ := ParseVerbSet(verbStr); v.Has(verb) {
+				add(principal, i)
+			}
+		}
+		// Admins bypass the ACL clamp, so they can always do this verb.
+		for _, principal := range level.Admins {
+			add(principal, i)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return Authority{Roles: sortedSet(roleSet), People: sortedSet(peopleSet)}
+}
+
+func sortedSet(m map[string]struct{}) []string {
+	if len(m) == 0 {
+		return nil
+	}
+	out := make([]string, 0, len(m))
+	for k := range m {
+		out = append(out, k)
+	}
+	sort.Strings(out)
+	return out
+}
diff --git a/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan_test.go b/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c9737fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/zddc/internal/zddc/whocan_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
+package zddc
+
+import (
+	"reflect"
+	"testing"
+)
+
+func TestWhoCan(t *testing.T) {
+	chain := PolicyChain{
+		Levels: []ZddcFile{
+			{
+				ACL: ACLRules{Permissions: map[string]string{
+					"document_controller": "rwcda",
+					"carol@example.com":   "rwc",
+					"*@example.com":       "r", // read only — must NOT show up for 'c'
+				}},
+				Roles: map[string]Role{
+					"document_controller": {Members: []string{"alice@example.com", "bob@example.com"}},
+				},
+				Admins: []string{"super@example.com"},
+			},
+		},
+		HasAnyFile: true,
+	}
+
+	// create: the role (rwcda) + a direct grant (carol rwc) + the admin (bypass).
+	// The read-only *@example.com pattern is excluded.
+	got := WhoCan(chain, VerbC)
+	if want := []string{"document_controller"}; !reflect.DeepEqual(got.Roles, want) {
+		t.Errorf("VerbC Roles = %v, want %v", got.Roles, want)
+	}
+	if want := []string{"alice@example.com", "bob@example.com", "carol@example.com", "super@example.com"}; !reflect.DeepEqual(got.People, want) {
+		t.Errorf("VerbC People = %v, want %v", got.People, want)
+	}
+
+	// admin verb: only the role (rwcda) + admin bypass; carol (rwc) lacks 'a'.
+	got = WhoCan(chain, VerbA)
+	if wcContains(got.People, "carol@example.com") {
+		t.Errorf("VerbA People = %v, should not include carol (no 'a')", got.People)
+	}
+	if !wcContains(got.People, "super@example.com") {
+		t.Errorf("VerbA People = %v, want the admin", got.People)
+	}
+
+	// read: granted to the *@example.com pattern (a People entry, not a role).
+	if got = WhoCan(chain, VerbR); !wcContains(got.People, "*@example.com") {
+		t.Errorf("VerbR People = %v, want to include *@example.com", got.People)
+	}
+
+	// empty chain → nobody named.
+	if a := WhoCan(PolicyChain{}, VerbC); !a.Empty() {
+		t.Errorf("empty chain: got %+v, want Empty()", a)
+	}
+}
+
+func wcContains(ss []string, s string) bool {
+	for _, x := range ss {
+		if x == s {
+			return true
+		}
+	}
+	return false
+}